effect size

What a p-Value Actually Means (and What It Doesn’t)

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The p-value is the most used and most misunderstood number in all of statistics. It appears in nearly every empirical paper in psychology, medicine, and the social sciences. Researchers chase it, reviewers demand it, and careers are built on getting it below a certain threshold. And yet, if you ask most people who use p-values … Read more

Sample Size: How Much Data Do You Actually Need?

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“How many participants do I need?” It’s probably the single most common question students and early-career researchers ask me when they’re designing a study. And it’s a fair question, you can’t conduct research without knowing how much data to collect. But the honest answer is rarely the one people want to hear. The short version: … Read more